Life as a Roman soldier in Britain: what our collections reveal
How significant was the Roman period for Britain?
First, let's begin by setting the scene of Roman Britain. The period of history when the Romans ruled Britain (traditionally seen as AD 43 – 410) is perhaps one of the most archaeologically rich outside the modern era. Huge quantities of goods were produced, exported, imported and consumed in Britain. Products like ceramics, metalwork, textiles, food, weapons and coins were in everyday circulation and use.
The people of Roman Britain were part of a much larger economic bloc: the Roman Empire. It was during this time that coinage came into common usage for the first time.
The Roman Empire brought with it relative stability (at least for almost two centuries). With empire came the opportunity for some people to amass wealth as well as the ability to access a ready market of suppliers.
Now let's take a look at what was important to Roman soldiers and what objects in English Heritage's collections reveal about their daily life.
Roman duties and downtime
Roman soldiers in Britain would likely have spent a lot less time fighting than we might imagine. There would have been a lot of downtime. In most forts there is evidence of gaming, whether on boards, or with something like knuckle bones. Find out more about gaming through the ages here.
Through their personal possessions, we can also begin to understand more about the individuals who made up the Roman army in Britain — and not simply as an anonymous unit of soldiers.
The Roman army did not issue a uniform as the army does today. Soldiers were provided with standardised armour and weapons such as a sword and spears. However, they had opportunities to individualise their dress. Brooches from Richborough Roman Fort are discussed below, but one option for personal taste (and wealth) to be displayed was through studs and mounts for the soldiers' belts. Chesters Roman Fort in particular has produced a wide range of designs and styles, mostly made of copper alloy, some with enamel decoration.
Copper alloy and enamel belt plate © Trustees of the Clayton Collection and English Heritage.
Copper alloy and enamel belt plate © Trustees of the Clayton Collection and English Heritage.
Silver plated belt plate. Part of a pair which said ‘VTER FELIX’ meaning ‘use and be happy’ © Trustees of the Clayton Collection and English Heritage.
Silver plated belt plate. Part of a pair which said ‘VTER FELIX’ meaning ‘use and be happy’ © Trustees of the Clayton Collection and English Heritage.
Soldiers were assigned duties including daily guard duty, cleaning the bath house, patrol and road-building. Some had more permanent roles such as armourer, butcher, medic, book-keeper or horse-trainer. These soldiers were called immunis as they were 'immune' from normal duties.
Background image: Stone gaming board set up with bone dice, ceramic counters and a bone and a ceramic shaker.
The importance of protection
Lorica segmentata is the armour most people imagine when they picture a Roman soldier. It is made up of overlapping plates of iron, covering the shoulders and torso. A suit weighed between 5kg and 9kg. It's thought the suits were made to fit specific individuals.
Re-enactors say this type of armour needs continual maintenance, more so than mail or scale armour. Any moisture starts to rust the metal, and the internal leathers holding the individual plates together rot from the wearer's sweat.
Keeping your cuirass (suit of armour) clean and in working order took a large part of a soldier's time. Deductions were made from the soldiers' pay for armour, weapons and clothes. Therefore, it was in the soldiers' best interests to keep their kit in good condition, not to mention the fact it might save their life in battle.
One of the most famous finds from Corbridge Roman Town is the Corbridge Hoard: a wooden chest filled with armour, tools and personal possessions. The material allowed archaeologists to understand for the first time how this armour type was made, used and worn. It also highlights the soldier's role in making and repairing his armour. Within the hoard were bundles of spears, broken from their wooden shafts, waiting to be re-shafted.
The armour found in the hoard consisted of parts of six different suits, not one complete set. If one plate was damaged, you could simply replace that plate, without needing an entire new suit. This stash of armour was likely a blacksmith's stock, ready to repair his fellow soldiers' armour as required.
Magic: an important element of survival
But protection wasn't just about armour. The Romans believed magic was also an important element of survival.
In Roman Britain, the evil eye was believed to be the source of all misfortunes such as illness, crop failure, and death. One way the Romans attempted to protect themselves from the evil eye was with the phallus symbol. The evil eye was understood to be transmitted from the eye of the curse-giver into the eye of a recipient. The hope was that the image of a phallus could distract and divert the evil eye.
Romans often incorporated the symbol of the phallus in accessories, for example, hanging from a pendant around the neck. The majority of phallic objects from Wroxeter Roman City date to the military phase of the site (AD mid-40s to c.90) and almost all are protective amulets for mounting onto the cheek straps of a horse's bridle or harness.
Another amulet discovered at Wroxeter came from northern Italy. It was originally a mount for a communal vessel for sharing alcoholic drinks in the late 1st century BC. In this image, you can see either Castor or Pollux posing as a boxer — the twin gods were great favourites with the army due to their athletic prowess. When the figure broke off the drinking vessel, someone drilled a hole through his hat, put a ring through it and turned it into an amulet for protection and good fortune.
An animal bone harness mount depicting a phallus at one end and a mano fica – a very rude hand gesture – at the other. Later 1st century AD. © Historic England. Photographer: Bob Smith
An animal bone harness mount depicting a phallus at one end and a mano fica – a very rude hand gesture – at the other. Later 1st century AD. © Historic England. Photographer: Bob Smith
A copper alloy harness mount from the later 1st century AD. © Historic England. Photographer: Bob Smith
A copper alloy harness mount from the later 1st century AD
Amulet discovered at Wroxeter © Historic England and Steven Baker.
Amulet discovered at Wroxeter © Historic England and Steven Baker.
A sense of honour and identity
The stereotypical image of Roman soldiers all with identical clothing and equipment is a myth. Buckles and strap ends, as well as weapons and armour, could vary depending on the unit a soldier fought in, and even between soldiers within a unit.
Were they in one of the main legionary forces or an auxiliary one? Could they afford to replace lost or damaged items with new, fashionable pieces, or were they forced to make do with a simple repair? Had they earned the right to wear a phalerae (a type of military honour) on their breastplate? A contemporary would be able to tell a lot about the combat history, status, and possibly even nationality, of an individual Roman soldier just by looking at their clothing.
The large number of soldiers' brooches found at Richborough Roman Fort illustrate how even one simple item can tell you a lot about its wearer. Of nearly 450 brooches found, only two are the same.
Most obviously, designs changed dramatically over time. When the Romans invaded in AD 43, many soldiers appear to have been wearing simple one-piece brooches made from a single wire twisted into shape. Other styles of this early period include several high-bowed 'Aucissa' brooches and 'Colchester' types with deeper, weightier bows.
An early 'Aucissa' brooch.
An early 'Aucissa' brooch.
By contrast in AD 410, as the Roman troops were leaving, almost all of the soldiers were wearing variations on the 'crossbow' design, named because it looks like the weapon of later centuries.
Late 'crossbow' brooch.
Late 'crossbow' brooch.
Beyond changing fashions, there are clear distinctions in rank that can be seen in the materials and decorations used. The majority of the Richborough brooches are an alloy of copper, but three are made from the more expensive silver and a couple are lower status iron. Decoration ranges from non-existent through to complex enamel patterns, which would only be available to the wealthiest.
Size was also important. The crossbow brooches mentioned above came in a wide variety of sizes. The large examples that used a lot of metal and bore more complex designs were, apparently, reserved for high-level officials.
However, one brooch from Richborough shows just how personal these objects could be. It is a variety of the 'Hod Hill' type, typically associated with the military, and it bears the inscription Si Amas Ego Plus ('If you love me, I love you more').
Our role in conserving Roman history
In just this small selection, we can see how the everyday existence of a Roman soldier in Britannia can be brought to life. These objects were all owned, handled, used and ultimately lost by people who are just like us. The fact that they were then found again is extraordinary.
What they reveal about England more than 1,600 years ago is just as remarkable. As custodians of many Roman sites, English Heritage is able to curate these items and bring the story of Roman Britain to life.
Today English Heritage cares for many Roman sites across England. In many cases, such as at Wroxeter Roman City and Hadrian's Wall, theses places are undeniably Roman as they were no longer consistently occupied when Roman rule collapsed in the early 5th century. Other sites, such as Dover Castle, were occupied by the Romans but then went on to have a rich and varied life for centuries after Roman occupation.
Along with these remarkable places, we have a huge collection of Roman objects all relating to the sites in our care. Each of these objects offer insight into the way the Romans lived their lives. At just one site alone we have more than 50,000 individual coins. But if we look across all the Roman sites within our care, the collection becomes colossal: more than 150,000 items in total. In fact, the collections we have relating to Roman sites are among our largest overall.
These collections help us make links with the people of the past. Items can be small and personal, or they can be commemorative, but they always speak of people. Even objects from the Roman army can tell us more about how the legionaries dressed, fought, spent their free time and felt about the world around them in general.
These are just a few examples of how our object collections can help us to unlock the real lives of those who lived, and fought, in Roman Britain.
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